Domestic Violence Within The Military Social Work Essay

Domestic Violence Within The Military Social Work Essay Understanding family violence in the military is an important concern because of the unique stresses faced by military families on a daily basis that could place them at greater risk for family dysfunction. Long separations, such as Deployment to war, can create a stressful lifestyle for military families. In the mid to late 1990s advocates and activists, were able to persuade policy makers that domestic violence constituted a social problem specifically for the military. American foreign policy has resulted in the deployment of U.S. military personnel to nations around the world, providing servicemen opportunities to meet and socialize with local women. Immigrant status keeps many women from seeking help or leaving the abusive relationship, fearing they cant ask for help and deportation. The servicemen tried to prevent their immigrant wives from gaining independence or leaving the marriage. The militarys approach to prevent, identify and intervene with domestic violence relies heavi ly on the Family Advocacy Program (FAP). Introduction Family violence may be more common in the military population compared to the civilian population because of higher overall stress levels associated with the military lifestyle (e.g., frequent separations, long work hours, dangerous work environment, etc.). Long separations, such as Deployment to war, can create a stressful lifestyle for military families. Studies have proven long deployments increase the chances of returning with combat trauma, as a result heightens the risk of domestic violence (Rentz et al., 2006). Understanding family violence in the military is an important concern because of the unique stresses faced by military families on a daily basis that could place them at greater risk for family dysfunction. Members of the armed forces are often required to relocate to another city, state, or country, often resulting in a disruption to family life. They also tend to work long hours and are subject to extended separations in the form of schooling, temporary assignments, or deployment, all of which may interfere with family obligations (Alvarez Sontiag, 2008). Domestic Violence in the Military: The History The Department of Defense has taken a clear stance against family violence. In 1981, Department of Defense Directive 6400.1 required each branch of military service (Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps) to establish (a) a Family Advocacy Program to prevent and treat child maltreatment and spouse abuse and (b) a confidential central registry to collect and analyze Family Advocacy Program data (Department of Defense, 2004). It is unclear whether or not family violence would be more common among military families than among civilian families. Family violence may be more common in the military population compared to the civilian population because of higher overall stress levels associated with the military lifestyle (e.g., frequent separations, long work hours, dangerous work environment, etc.). Soldiers are subject to deployments and relocations that can often lead to a separation from peers and community support networks. Frequent and extensive separations may have a profound impact on marriages, particularly those of short duration, because they present a window of opportunity for the spouse left behind to explore independence and develop other relationships. For those relocated to installations located outside of the continental United States, social and cultural isolation is fairly common (Rentz et al., 2006). There is an increasing number of active duty military (ADM) women, like their civilian counterparts, at risk for domestic violence (DV). This study illustrates active duty military womens attitudes and choices concerning the militarys policy on domestic violence. 474 ADM women from all services were interviewed via telephone. Nineteen of whom had experienced DV during their military service (Gielen et al., 2006). During the study, ADM women were afraid if they were to report domestic violence it would jeopardize their job. In fact, a higher proportion of military women thought regular screening would intensify future abuse (Gielen et al., 2006). This may be related to the military context in which there is mandatory reporting and a lack of confidentiality. United States Military Culture Gender-based violence, such as sexual harassment, rape, and domestic violence, is a global phenomenon that occurs among military families and within military communities, during peace time and in time of war. A number of researchers and activists have argued that military culture, shared norms, for example, regarding masculinity, sexuality, violence, and women, is conducive to rape and sexual harassment, as well as domestic violence (Adelman, 2003). In the United States, however, it was not until the mid to late 1990s that advocates and activists, working both within and outside of the military, were able to persuade policy makers that domestic violence constituted a social problem specifically for the military. Widespread media coverage of military-generated sexual harassment and sexual assault scandals as well as reporting of high rates of domestic violence in the U.S. military in Time magazines and 60 Minutess motivated the Department of Defense to address domestic violence in the military (Adelman, 2003). Civilian advocates for battered women as well as military personnel warn that domestic violence harms servicewomen and civilian women (and their children) who are married to military servicemen. It also has been argued that domestic violence goes against the institutional values of the military and negatively affects military readiness (Adelman, 2003). These include creation of a task force, strengthening of reporting protocols, enhancement of the Family Advocacy Program, and encouragement to create public notice between civilian and military authorities. Military policies regarding domestic violence diverge from civilian approaches in several significant ways. What constitutes a criminal violation, for example, and who substantiates a complaint of domestic violence conform to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ, n.d.). Privacy and confidentiality are not guaranteed within the military system, which mandates the reporting to unit commanders of suspected cases of domestic violence regarding personnel under their supervision. Military responses to domestic violence differ most clearly from civilian, state-based responses in that the social control mechanism doubles as the offenders employer. In the United States, the military or the military base constitutes a relatively isolated and autonomous social and legal entity that produces and is governed by its own language, norms, and laws. This reflects the idealized distance and legal division between military and civilian life in the United States, and as a result, studies of domestic violence in the U.S. military are based on a separation between the civil and the military, making it difficult to conduct comprehensive or comparative research. Orders of protection obtained in a civilian court, for example, may not be enforced within the federal jurisdiction of a military base and vice versa. Much of the concern with and research on military culture and relationships between military culture and domestic violence have been generated in the United States or in countries that host U.S. military bases, due to a number of high-profile cases of sexual harassment, rape, and domestic homicide in the U.S. military (Adelman, 2003). Defense Task Force on Domestic Violence Although the Defense Task Force on Domestic Violence (DTFDV) has made a serious attempt to address many of the concerns related to domestic violence in the military, its analysis of battering is highly flawed in key sections of the report. As a result, the report includes inappropriate recommendations for interventions and remedies. Battering is described as an individual, clinical problem in the section on training of military officers and the section on offender accountability. No attention is given to the societal attitudes and belief systems that support such violence and no distinctions are made between normal marital disputes and the pattern of power and control that characterizes domestic violence (DOD, 2004; Rosenthal McDonald, 2003). The DTFDV report strongly recommends that training be provided to military officers and presents information that should be included in such training. However, there is a troublesome emphasis within this information on anger management as a remedy in some domestic violence cases. The information states that anger management classes should only be utilized in low level emotional maltreatment cases where there has been no physical violence. Classifying any domestic violence case as low level is problematic and indicates confusion about the dynamics of this specific pattern of behavior. Domestic violence is not about everyday arguments and irritabilities between couples. The pattern of behavior that is generally defined as domestic violence involves coercive, intimidating, frightening, and controlling behavior by one partner toward another. Situations in which such a pattern is present generally involve not only emotional maltreatment but also threats of violence that can quickly escala te into physical abuse (Rosenthal McDonald, 2003). Reports of Parental Spousal Violence In the military, family violence directly jeopardizes the familys financial security. A battered wife often protects the military husband against legal proceedings initiated by the military. The military also may be more likely to protect officers accused of spousal violence as compared to enlisted soldiers. Studies indicate that children can accurately report on spousal violence. In the military, 95% of spousal violence occurs in the home and 43% of victims report that children witness the abuse. The study demonstrated that there was as general trend for more spousal violence in the military families with slapping, throwing objects, and an overall measure of violence distinguishing between the military and civilian groups. These differences persisted even when controlling for ethnic background and military rank. Spousal violence was significantly higher in commissioned officers as compared to enlisted personnel. The current study does not address whether the military environment contributes to increased spousal violence or whether individuals prone to abusive behavior are more likely to join the military (Cronin, 1995). Immigration and Domestic Violence Each year, hundreds of thousands of women enter the United States as a spouse of a U.S. citizen or legal permanent resident, coming to the United States with significant disadvantages in social status and resources compared with their male partners. Women whose immigrant status is attached to their husbands U.S. citizenship enjoy somewhat greater legal protection than do undocumented immigrant women, but they too are vulnerable due to the structure of immigration law (MSCFV, n.d.). Immigrant status keeps many women from seeking help from abuse or leaving the abusive relationship. Undocumented women fear that if they ask for help, the health or social service provider will turn them in for deportation. However, even battered immigrant women with legal immigrant status feel vulnerable to deportation should they seek help. Asian and Latino immigrant women with spousal visas tied to their abusers also report that fears of deportation maintain their involvement with their batterer (Erez Bach, 2003). The United States is considered a nation of immigrants. Nevertheless, who is allowed to legally immigrate has varied over time. U.S. immigration and naturalization laws have shaped the resulting immigrant pool in terms of gender, race or nationality, sexual orientation, and marital status. Subsequent changes in immigration policy, including an amnesty initiative in the mid-1980s, led to heterosexual family reunification and an increase in the numbers of women and children who migrated to the United States. Such gendered and sexualized patterns reflect how immigration and naturalization law serves to police the purported moral as well as political boundaries of the nation. These immigration laws affect why, when, how, and with whom women immigrate and their experiences of domestic violence subsequent to arrival in the United States (Erez, Adelman, Gregory, 2009; Raj Silverman, 2002). Some women reported that the increase in emotional, sexual, and physical abuse coincided with immigration-specific activities such as entering the country, filing immigration papers, or accessing social welfare systems. The majority of women who came with their spouses reported that the transition and move to the United States altered the dynamics of the relationship: He has had more power to manipulate in the U.S. because I am illegal and depended on him and I didnt have any rights here (Erez et al., 2009). Although law is not intentionally gender biased, one that creates a status-marriage dependency, such as immigration law, makes immigrant women more vulnerable to the domestic violence power dynamic. Military Brides American foreign policy has resulted in the deployment of U.S. military personnel to nations around the world, providing servicemen opportunities to meet and socialize with local women. Some members of the Armed Forces stationed overseas form intimate which they are deployed, making these women military brides, namely, foreign-born women who marry U.S. military personnel. For instance, the deployment of U.S. troops in Asian countries has resulted in more than 200,000 Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, Korean, and Filipino women marrying U.S. service members and immigrating to the United States since World War II. On arrival in this country, military brides become immigrants and are subject to U.S. immigration laws, which generally give, with few exceptions, a spouse (or parent) control over the immigration status of their dependents (Erez Bach, 2003). The servicemen tried to prevent their immigrant wives from gaining independence or leaving the marriage. Some husbands prohibited the women from looking for employment. One woman stated that the violence occurred while she was on the telephone discussing a job. Another woman noted that she could only work when her abuser was out of the house. Attempts by the women to take some actions to stop the abuse also triggered violence: [Violence occurred] following meetings with an attorney or military officials (Erez Bach, 2003). Without exception, the women interviewed reported that their husbands (or fiancà © in one case) used their immigration status as a weapon against them. The abuse tactics included threats to report them to immigration authorities, to inform the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) about presumed law violations, to take away the children, or to deport the women (Erez Bach, 2003). Without any close family or friends nearby, the women did not have any semblance of the social and cultural support networks that are available to other military wives. The immigrant women could not travel home, nor could they call or communicate with relatives or friends. They were not familiar with the civilian community around them and did not have the benefit of an immigrant community to turn to for support or advice. Without the presence of family, friends, or community, the isolation and powerlessness intensified (Raj Silverman, 2002). Lack of language skills increases immigrant womens isolation, precludes access to information, and further limits their employment prospects. In responding to domestic violence in the military, special attention should be paid to women whose circumstances involve multiple vulnerabilities, such as military brides. Marital ties of immigrant women to abusive men combine military and immigration-related abuse and dependency, whether real or perceived. The study demonstrates that immigration status can become an additional weapon in the arsenal of abusive military partners. As immigrant women are often not aware of or informed about legal protections and available services, 10 immigration-related abuses can become an effective tool of control and domination. In light of the large number of intimate partnerships formed between American military personnel stationed abroad and foreign-born women, the abuse potential inherent in such relationships warrants special attention by the military in its efforts to address domestic violence (Defense Task Force on Domestic Violence, 2002). It is important to remind all who work with battered women and immigrant communities that we must do what is necessary to improve the lives of battered immigrant women and their children. Members of immigrant communities, battered womens advocates, researchers, policy makers, and most importantly, battered immigrant women must collaborate in designing these efforts. Defense Departments Family Advocacy Program The Department of Defense created a Family Advocacy Program (FAP), providing victims with resources that would help get to safety and back on their feet. The program is available on each military base, and consists of coordinated efforts designed to prevent, identify, report and treat all aspects of child abuse and neglect, and domestic abuse. Each base also has a victims advocate who work with the units FAP (DOD, 2004). Licensed counselors, psychologists and social workers make up the military victim advocate. They are knowledgeable about the process military personnel and their families can take to address domestic violence. They also have available a list of resources, therapists, and shelters that will assist victims and their families. Advocates and consultants work with the victim, advising the individual of available options (DOD, 2004). Commanding officers are ultimately responsible for maintaining good order and discipline among military personnel. Although all the Military Services provide training to assist commanding officers in understanding their roles and responsibilities related to command, the curricula and duration vary by Service. Department of Defense Directive (DoDD) 6400.1 mandates that the Family Advocacy Program (FAP) office notify a service members commanding officer when an act of abuse has allegedly occurred. The directive mandates the education and training of key personnel on policy and effective measures to alleviate problems associated with child and spouse abuse. The directive, however, does not define key personnel (Klimp Tucker, 2001). The services have implemented this policy in varying ways, to include everything from individual briefings with commanding officers once they have assumed command positions on an installation to a group training format. The Army provides specific instructions on briefing commanding officers via Army Regulation 608-18, the Army FAP. The Navys guidance is outlines on OPNAVINST 1752.2A, FAP, noting that commanding officers shall ensure that the command is trained on the identification and prevention of family violence, reporting requirements, and command, community, and FAP response awareness as regular professional development training (Klimp Tucker, 2001). The Air Force provides guidance in Air Force Instruction 40-301, FAP and the Marine Corps provides guidance for commanding officer training in MCOP 1752.3B, Marine Corps FAP Standing Operation. Unit commanders at installations with a family service center should obtain a FAP brief from the FAP manager within 45 days of assuming command (Klimp Tucker, 2001). The Department of Defense does not mandate domestic violence training specifically for military commanding officers. However, the DOD advises the Services to provide education and training for key personnel. Installations vary in their interpretations of the directive, and, as a result, some programs have more depth than others. The militarys approach to prevent, identify and intervene with domestic violence relies heavily on FAP. Given they operate under the guidance of qualified mental health professionals they are readily available to assist those military personnel and their families with their needs. Summary Domestic violence includes but not limited to the willful intimidation, physical assault and battery against an intimate partner or child. It also includes emotionally abusive and controlling behavior that establishes a pattern of dominance and control (NCADV, 2005). Even though domestic violence is never acceptable, mental health professionals know firsthand how the kind of intense stress experienced by military members often leads to abusive behaviors. In the 2008 New York Times article When Strains on Military Families Turn Deadly, the authors state that studies illustrate the relationship between combat experience, trauma, and domestic violence. The article cited a 2006 study which focused on veterans at a Veterans Affairs medical center who sought marital counseling between 1997 and 2003. They found that those with PTSD were significantly more likely to perpetrate violence toward their partner. Studies like these, and reports by those who work with military personnel and their families, have many mental health practitioners, military leaders, and policymakers concerned, and determined to find solutions for countless victims, before its too late. The NYT article mentioned several instances where mental health problems associated with the Iraq and Afghanistan wars led to devastating, deadly homicides, with a service member killing his spouse, or child, and sometimes turning the gun on himself afterwards (Alvarez Sontiag, 2008). Future research is needed that explores family violence in all branches of the military. Studies should also focus on the simultaneous occurrence of child maltreatment and spouse abuse in military families. The civilian and military communities are urged to work toward using common definitions and practices to facilitate comparison of rates among the populations. It is important to further examine service availability and utilization to determine the impact on family violence. References: Adelman, M. (2003). The Military, Militarism and the Militarization of domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 9: 1118-1152. DOI: 10.1177/1077801203255292. Alvarez, L. Sontiag, D. (2008, February 15). When strains on military families turn deadly. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/us/15vets.html?pagewanted=2HYPERLINK http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/us/15vets.html?pagewanted=2_r=1HYPERLINK http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/us/15vets.html?pagewanted=2_r=1_r=1 Cronin, C. (1995). Adolescent reports of parental spousal violence in Military and civilian families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10: 117-122. DOI: 10.1177/088626095010001008. Department of Defense. (2004). Department of Defense Directive 6400.1. Retrieved from http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/640001p.pdf Erez, E. Bach, S. (2003). Immigration, domestic violence, and the military: The case of Military Brides. Violence Against Women, 9: 1093-1117. DOI: 10.1177/1077801203255289. Erez, E., Adelman, M. Gregory, C. (2009). Intersections of immigration and domestic violence: Voices of battered immigrant women. Feminist Criminology, 4: 32-56. DOI: 10.1177/1557085108325413. Gielen, A., Campbell, J., Garza, M. A., OCampo, P., Dienemann, J., Kub, J., Lloyd, D. W. (2006). Domestic Violence in the Military: Womens Policy Preferences and Beliefs Concerning Routine Screening and Mandatory Reporting. Military Medicine, 171(8), 729-735. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Klimp, J. W. Tucker, T.T. (2001). Domestic violence. Arlington, VA: Task Force Mid-Shore Council on Family Violence. (n.d.). Domestic violence immigrant victims. Retrieved from http://www.mscfv.org/dvstat.html National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. (2005). Domestic Violence. Retrieved from http://www.ncadv.org/aboutus.php Raj, A. Silverman, J. (2002). Violence against immigrant women: The roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 8: 367-398. DOI: 10.1177/10778010222183107. Rentz, D.E., Martin, S.L., Gibbs, D.A., Clinton-Sherrod, M. Hardison, J. Marshall, S. (2006). Family violence in the military: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, Abuse, 7: 93-108. DOI: 10.1177/1524838005285916. Rosenthal, L. McDonald, S. (2003). Seeking justice: A review of the second report of the defense task force on domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 9: 1153-1161. DOI: 10.1177/1077801203255549. Uniform Code of Military Justice. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ucmj.htm Part II: A Reflection Piece The Family Justice Center Abstract The Family Justice Center (FJC) is just that, a multi-agency service center for victims of family violence and their children. FJC is comprised of multiple community partners. With my legal background interning with the legal network was the best fit. My role consisted of screening domestic violence (DV) victims, assisting in the process of obtaining a temporary restraining order (TRO) and providing court support. As a certified paralegal and currently studying forensic psychology I am finding it somewhat difficult to overstep my boundaries in performing dual roles. The most challenging policy to adhere is the qualifications for obtaining a TRO. It is difficult to determine what qualification constitutes someone as being qualified for a TRO. Does a victim have to get beaten before applying for a TRO? At what point do we justify what qualifies? One of the laws that we do follow is the Dr. Jackie Campbells Danger Assessment. The Danger Assessment (DA) was originally developed by Co-Inv estigator Campbell with consultation and content validity support from battered women, shelter workers, law enforcement officials, and other clinical experts on battering. As every multi-disciplinary team is unique, it is important to be aware of strategies to address challenges related to working in multi-disciplinary teams. Whether it is defining roles, setting boundaries, or ensuring all team members can contribute equally, strategies like these can help multi-disciplinary teams address challenges they often encounter. Introduction There are many forensic psychology settings in which forensic psychology professionals may work. Forensic psychology professionals may work with offenders in the courts, in prisons, in halfway houses, or in community settings. Forensic psychology professionals may also work with crime victims in settings such as domestic violence shelters. There are many reasons why I chose the forensic psychology setting I did for my field experience. The Family Justice Center The Family Justice Center (FJC) focuses on creating a network nationally and internationally minimizing family violence. The center also provides, training, consultation and host conferences. The FJC is comprised of multiple professionals and services such as a military liaison, mental health services, a law enforcement department, and a legal department. The FJC is just that, a multi-agency service center for victims of family violence and their children. This center offers children with close working relationships, shared training and technical assistance, collaborative learning processes, and coordinated funding assistance (FJC, 2009). The FJC legal networks mission statement is to provide convenient and free legal services to victims of domestic violence (FJC, 2009). FJC goes above and beyond their mission statement. They provide additional resources and centers their attention only on the individual client. They provide a child care center for clients with children, a waiting room filled with drinks and snacks is provided as well as small therapy rooms equipped with comfortable sofas. The therapy room is where assessments are conducted for privacy purposes. Roles and Responsibilities FJC is comprised of multiple community partners. With my legal background interning with the legal network was the best fit. My role consisted of screening domestic violence (DV) victims, assisting in the process of obtaining a temporary restraining order (TRO) and providing court support at court hearings. Once the screening is conducted, I consult with my supervising attorney to determine if the client has qualifying elements to proceed with a TRO. To qualify for a TRO through FJC, a client must have one of the following relationships to the person they want restrained: Spouse or former spouse Person with whom you share(d) a living space Have or had a dating/engagement relationship Parents of a child Relative to the second degree (grandparents, but not cousins) The person they wish to have restrained must ALSO have committed one of these acts: Recent physical violence Recent threats of physical violence Harassment Recent sexual assault or molestation Stalking Verbal abuse (only when very severe) (FJC, 2009). Ethical Issues The FJC takes every precaution to follow all ethical codes set upon all professionals within the organization. As I mentioned before the FJC is comprised of various professionals such as detectives, counselors/psychologists and attorneys. Each professional has its own ethical codes to follow. The legal department follows same ethical codes related to confidentiality and release of information (APA, 2010: Ethical Standard Code 4; AP-LS, 2008: Specialty Guideline 10). Each client is required to go through two screenings before they move forward with the legal department. A psychologist screens them and if there are visible injuries, the client is seen by a forensic medical examiner. At this time, a release authorization form of the photos is signed by client. This gives the organization permission to use the photos as evidence for court hearings. Each client is required to sign a confidentiality agreement form prior to meeting with the legal department. As stated above the organization is also comprised of police officers and detectives. Police officers and detectives have their own ethical codes to follow. At times a client would arrive and would also like to file a police report. At the moment the client is allowed to file a report. At no time can the psychologist or attorney be present during this time. If a third party was present during this time, the third party is entitled to testify in court as a witness for the criminal case. It can get pretty complicated. I ran into this problem when assisting with the client that was a detective. As a certified paralegal and currently studying forensic psychology I found it somewhat difficult not to overstep my boundaries in performing dual roles (APA, 2010: Ethical Standard Code 3; AP-LS, 2008: Specialty Guidelines 6). Part of my responsibility prior to assisting with the TRO I have to screen them to determine if they have enough evidence to move forward with a TRO. Sometimes I find myself steering towards a psychological assessment only to remember that Im screening for legal purposes. Legal Issues With the legal field come many laws, regulations and procedures. The most challenging policy to adhere is the

Why Marijuana Should Be Decriminalized

Connor Biro – 2577567 English 102 Price 4/5/13 Why Marijuana Should Be Decriminalized in the U. S. â€Å"Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the most therapeutically active substances known to man† (qtd. in Rosenthal and Kubby 49). The DEA’s Administrative Law Judge, Francis L. Young, stated this in the matter of Marijuana Medical Rescheduling Petition, in 1988 when attempting to list marijuana as a Schedule II drug (Keene 93). Marijuana, or â€Å"weed,† is made from the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant cannabis sativa.In 1937, cannabis was made illegal with the passage of the Marijuana Tax Act. Since it was criminalized, billions of dollars have been spent in marijuana –related incarcerations. Marijuana consumption should be decriminalized in the United States for both medical and recreational use because it could prove medically, economically, and socially beneficial for the nation. The first reason marijuana should decriminalized in the United States is for its medicinal value. Marijuana can be used to treat an assortment of diseases and disorders, and also helps in pain relief.Patients suffering from glaucoma, an ocular disease where the eye is subject to increased pressure that damages the optic nerve, eventually leading to blindness, can be treated with marijuana to help reduce the pressure on the eye (Keene 92). For individuals suffering from epilepsy, a brain disorder in which an individual may has repeated seizures over time, marijuana can potentially prevent seizures at a very affordable price (Rosenthal and Kubby 50). Marijuana also helps relieve the side effects of chemotherapy, which include loss of appetite and nausea (Keene 91).Finally, marijuana helps individuals suffering from chronic pain caused by diseases such as fibromyalgia, arthritis, and cancer (Rosenthal and Kubby 50). Although, it appears that marijuana should be available at every pharmacy, behind every counter, after reading about its medi cinal properties, it is not. The second reason marijuana should be decriminalized in the U. S. is because it can improve our nation economically. So far marijuana has been legalized in 14 states, for medical use only. If marijuana were to be legalized more jobs would be reated, more money would be made in advertising businesses, and a significant amount of tax revenue made (Bradford). By comparing the taxes of liquor and cigarettes, it is concluded that the government could make about seven billion dollars a year in revenue just from state licenses, taxes and fees (Rosenthal and Kubby 26). Marijuana does not only provide medical uses, but industrial uses as well. Hemp, the nonpsychoactive sister of marijuana, is a very unique plant that has many useful qualities. Hemp has the longest fiber in the plant kingdom and is also known for its very strong and durable characteristics (Rosenthal and Kubby 28).The industrial applications that hemp can be used for include insulation, textiles, clothing, paper and most importantly, rope (Rosenthal and Kubby 28). In ancient China (around 8000 or 7000 B. C. ), archaeologists have found proof that hemp was a main crop for thousands of years, originally used as fabric, then eventually the Chinese found other uses like using the hemp fibers for rope and paper, and even mixing it with other grains as a food source (Keene 29). If marijuana were to be legalized, the manufacturers could export products such as the ones previously mentioned.As long as marijuana remains an illegal import, there is no way for the government to regulate its sale as well (Rosenthal and Kubby 75). The final reason marijuana should be decriminalized in the U. S. is because it can prove to be socially beneficial to the nation. Marijuana is listed as a Schedule I drug, along with heroin, LSD, and PCP, meaning the government believes it has a high potential for abuse, there is no current medical use in treatment in the U. S. , and that there is no acceptable use even under medical supervision (Rosenthal and Kubby).Millions of arrests and thousands of people are thrown in jail for marijuana charges, ranging from minor offenses, such as paraphernalia, to major offenses like illegally importing marijuana into the U. S. Police officers shouldn’t be wasting their time arresting youths with minor offenses like marijuana possession. If marijuana was decriminalized, teenagers arrested with minor charges related to marijuana would not have their lives ruined with marijuana-related crimes on their record (Rosenthal and Kubby 81-82). Another reason the nation’s society would be improved is by removing the young adults from the marijuana business.These young entrepreneurs succumb to the fast, easy money involved in dealing marijuana and ruin their chances of having a bright future. Marijuana should be decriminalized so the nation can benefit medically, socially, and economically. Legalizing marijuana just seems like the most logical thing to do, especially when the nation’s government is in such a tremendous amount of debt. It is presently legal to own and smoke small amounts of marijuana in Colorado and Washington. Over 65 million Americans use marijuana either occasionally or regularly (Rosenthal and Kubby IX).So why waste millions of dollars on the criminalization of marijuana charges, and lose the opportunity to make money off of this highly used plant? Citations Keene, Ann. Marijuana: It’s Effect on Mind & Body. New York: Chelsea House Publishers,1992. Print. Rosenthal, Ed, and Steve Kubby. Why Marijuana Should Be Legal. New York City: Thunder’sMouth Press. 2003. Print. Bradford, Harry. â€Å"14 Ways Marijuana Legalization Could Boost The Economy. † The HuffingtonPost. TheHufiingtonPost. com, Inc. 7 November, 2012. Web. 1 April. â€Å"Should Marijuana Be a Medical Option? † Medical Marijuana. ProCon. org, Inc. 6 May, 2009. qWeb. 28 March.

Analysis Of A Stakeholder Essay

The Stakeholder in which I decided to research and write about is the AMA or to some it may be known as the American Medical Association. This association’s mission is to better public health and promote the art and science of medicine. The AMA was founded in 1847 by a man by the name of Nathan Smith Davis. The group has since invested in the doctor and patient relationship and has promoted scientific advancement as well as improved public health. Mr. Davis was the first editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association back in 1883 until 1888. The first code of medical ethics was adopted by the AMA delegates and they were the ones to establish the first nationwide standards for preliminary medical education as well as the degree of MD’s. This association has become the largest in American history. The AMA continues to serve as an advocate for the profession, physicians, and patients. The AMA focus on three core areas within health care: (1) Improving the outcome of health care, (2) Changing medical education, (3) and by making sure payment models are delivered efficiently as well as enhancing physician satisfaction. Members of the AMA say they plan on setting goals in order to reach these things. (www.ama-assn.org) By doing so they plan to initiate, identify share, and develop patient-physician decision making. Also when it comes to bettering the system the AMA states that they will: (1) Increase productivity, save lives and money, and improve outcomes and health by developing and practicing it’s delivery, (2) Diversify physician services so that it may reflect the levels as well as its service risk by adopting a good payment policy, (3) and allow physicians to select the models that fits the mode of their practices.(www.ama-assn.org) After reading and knowing what the AMA stood for and the mission in which they are striving to accomplish made me better understand how they connect with the health care field. Now since we all have a better understanding about the AMA I can focus on the Health Care Reform Act and describe the AMA’s position on it. Here are a few things in which the Health Care Reform Act states. Thirty-two million uninsured Americans will be extended medical coverage. In the year of 2014 small business will be allowed to purchase coverage through a separate exchange. If a child has a preexisting medical condition they will not be denied health insurance coverage. Also in the year of 2014 no health insurance company will be able to deny health coverage to anyone. Parents will be able to carry their children on their health insurance policy until the age of twenty-six. Even if illegal immigrants want/need health insurance coverage and they are willing to purchase it with their own money they will not be allowed to do so with any exchange. In 2009 expansion of insurance coverage was the most contentious issue and the AMA was the most visible organization that represented physicians and their views on this issue. The AMA opposed Medicare expansion and proposed coverage of the uninsured primarily through private means. Many AMA members were in disagreement about this but it seems as if the older physicians supported the AMA’s decision but the younger ones disagreed. Many physicians supported the proposals for health insurance expansion in which the AMA opposed. Even though the AMA is considered the most visible organization that represent physicians, it’s views did not represent the majority of the physicians views on coverage expansion in the most recent reform efforts. The AMA felt as if the reform act did introduce and promise some priority goals which were: (1) extend coverage to uninsured, (2) investing in physician’s workforce, (3) proving long term relief from Medicare flawed physician payment formula, (4) focusing as well as increasing the nation’s preventive care and wellness initiatives, (5) and simplifying administrative burdens for patient and physicians. The AMA states that they will continue to work with Congress as well as Administration pushing for the best outcome for physicians as well as patients. (www.ama-assn.org) They also will continue to eliminate the IPAB (Independent Payment Advisory Board), replace the SGR (Sustainable Growth Rate), and Enact the MLR (Medical Liability Reform). With this being said overall it will take time but the AMA states that it will continue to stand strong and firm about its mission as well as its goals in which they are try to reach for its physicians and the patients.(www.acep.org) Even though the disagreed about certain proposals they will continue to fight. References www.acep.org www.ama-assn.org www.nejm.org

Literature Review On The Framework Of Investment Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3238 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Graham and Qadd (1934) states that an investment operation is one which is based upon thorough analysis that guarantees safety of amount invested and gives an adequate return. Operations that do not meet these conditions are speculative. Gordon and Sharpe (2002) differentiate between investment and saving. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Literature Review On The Framework Of Investment Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Investment is restricted to real investment as that type that increases national output in the future, while saving is consumption forgone. For Reilly and Brown (2002), investment is the current commitment of money for a time period in order to develop future payments that will reward the investor for the time period the funds are devoted, the rate of inflation, and the degree uncertainty of future payments. Bodie, Kane and Marcus (2003) speak of investment as the sacrifice of existing resources, something of value now, to benefit from that sacrifice later in terms of benefits. It is the engagement of money or other resources that one have in its possession to some other consistent assets with the expectation of earning some benefits in the future. From an Economist point of view, investment refers to the amount of expenditure on goods and services, which are not used for present consumption but for producing further goods and services. Economists argue that investment is equal to saving in any economy. While we can note a distinction between savings and investment, both terms are regularly used conversely (Hamouda, 2009). The three main characteristics of investment are return, time and risk. The engagement of resources invested now is certain, while the reward upon investment in meant in the future and the degree of uncertainty is uncertain. For instance, government bonds it is the time factor that predominates and the risk element is the principal feature for a common stock (Sharpe and Gordon, 2006). 2.2 Real Investment and Financial Investment Real investments represent investments in tangible or real assets such as equipment, land or buildings while financial investments deal with securities and contracts written on papers. The material wealth of a society is calculated by the productive capacity of goods and services of the society members. The capacity function of real assets of the economy can be used to manufacture goods and services by using land, buildings and knowledge. Real asset is that component of real investment that determines the productive capacity of any economy. Financial assets are written paper contracts and represent claims on real assets or the revenue generated by them. Financial assets define the proportion of income or wealth among investors while real assets create net income to an economy (Sharpe and Gordon, 2006; Bodie et al, 2002). Real investments that can generate significant income require significant financing. It is obvious that an individual will not be able to own banks, but this indiv idual, have the possibility to invest in the securities of an established firm to perform these fruitful activities. Table 2: Balance of U.S Household For instance, an individual who buys stocks of the Barclays PLC or the Mauritius Commercial Bank is carrying out financial investment in these organisations, which then can execute real investment in buildings, equipment, technology and furniture and fittings. Individuals have the choice of consuming today or investing their wealth today for future consumption. If they prefer to invest today, they will place their present wealth in financial assets through investment in various securities. Investors returns come from the income generated by the real assets that were funded by the issuance of those securities (Breadley and Myers, 2001). The difference between financial and real assets will be clearly apparent when one looks at the balance sheet of households. For instance, we are going to look at the United State household balanc e sheet as shown in Table 2 and Table 3 depicting United States national wealth. Source: Flow of Funds Accounts of the United States, Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System, June 2008 Table 3 :Domestic net worth (only with real assets) Assets Billion Non-residential real estate $9,001 Residential real estate $22,070 Equipment and software $3,923 Inventories $1,849 Consumer durables $4,082 Total $40,925 Source: Flow of Funds Accounts of the United States, Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System, June 2008 The largest asset and liability both come from the house owned. The position of deposits is usually maintained for liquidity of consumption and pension reserves are the money or assets invested for future retired life. Equity in non-corporative business may come from the investment in sole proprietorship or partnership companies. For example, a bond that an individual possess as an asset gives him an entitlement on int erest income while repayment of principal is a liability for the bond issuing company, where these payments are compulsory. The individuals asset is the bond issuing companys liability. When the balance sheet is totalled, the financial assets nullify the liabilities. Structures, equipment, inventories and land form the National wealth. 2.3 Behavioral Finance It is an integral part of investment decision making. In comparison with traditional finance theory. Behavioral finance lays emphasis on irrational behaviour of investors. Factors like cognitive biases, heuristics and mental errors can cause bad investment decisions. It integrates psychological factors with risk-return trade off theory (Mauboussin, 2004). Behavioural finance describe individual investors as unrational investors who are subject to cognitive psychological biases, who often exhibit risk seeking behaviour and their expectations are biased(Lucey, 2005). The classical decision-making under risk and uncertainty is based on asset integration, risk aversion and rational expectations. Unlike traditional finance theories suggest, investors do not necessarily make rational investment decisions. Cognitive psychological biases, which influence investment decision making, are heuristics (Representative, overconfidence, availability), regret aversion, cognitive dissonance, ancho ring mental accounting and greed fear (Chandra, 2008). 2.4 Factors affecting Investment Decisions The selection of investment alternative for the investor are to be considered first to know what are the objectives of investors (Hirt and Block, 2003). Different investors have different investment objectives. Some will be willing to bear significant risk in reaping returns; for other investors, safety is a principal concern. Taking into considerations investor objectives, the most vital question is: Why should we invest at all? (Corrado and Jordan, 2001). We shall consider the following factors as the investment objectives of an investor and the guidance in the selection of the different types of investment. Risk, return and Safety The most vital decision that an investor must deal with is the degree of risk he is prepared to shoulder. Risk tolerance measures the level of risk an investor is willing to accept. Most investors are risk-averse, that is, they will choose the investment with the minimum risk possible (Pellinen et al, 2010). Since higher returns are generally ass ociated with higher risks, the investor must therefore seek equilibrium between return objectives with risk tolerance. Most investors have a difficulty in expressing in any defined way their attitude toward risk. The main reason is that risk is not a simple theory; it cannot be easily defined or measured (Chandra, 2008). Investors who are rational and risk-averse will choose a portfolio made up mostly of short-term debt, securities from the government and major organisations. Conservative investors will normally invest in market fund where the capital of several investors are combined and reinvested in high-yielding investments and short-term investments. Current Income vs. Capital Appreciation If current income is the return objective, the investors portfolio will contain generating income rather than capital gains. This strategy sometimes suits investors who want to increase their income with income engendered by their portfolio to meet their living expenses. Pensioners may favour this objective for part of their portfolio to be able to generate spendable funds. The investment will usually be in high-yielding mature firms. Capital appreciation is an appropriate objective when the investor wants the portfolio to develop in real terms, through a rise in value to provide the expected return over time to meet some future need. Under this strategy, growth generally occurs through capital gains. It shows an aggressive strategy where investors are prepared to take on risk to meet their aim. It should be noted that there is a balance between growth and income, where it is unlikely to find these two characteristics in one type of investment. Capital Preservation Investors want to minimise their risk of loss, usually in real terms. They strive for maintaining the purchasing power of their investment, that is, the return should not be less than the rate of inflation. This is a strategy for strongly risk-averse investors or when funds are needed in the short -run, such as a down payment on a house. Ease of Management It is a factor worth considering in investment selection such that the time period and effort the investor has to dedicate to his portfolio should define the type of assets he decide to invest in. Liquidity Considerations Liquidity measures the ability to quickly convert an investment into cash at a price close to fair market value. Assets are more liquid if many traders are interested in a standardised product. Treasury bills are highly liquid while real estate and venture capital are not. There is need to consider in the investment plan the liquidity needs of the investor. Tax Factors Different types of investments are taxed differently. Higher tax bracket investors will prefer investment strategies with favourable tax credits or tax shelters while lower tax bracket investors will focus more on pre-tax returns. 2.5 Major differences in Investment Cultures around the Globe Culture comprises of beliefs and values that religious, ethnics and social groups hand on from generation to generation. Individuals have less control over their culture than other social capital (Becker, 1996). They cannot change their race, ethnicity, or family history, with some difficulties arousing that they can move to another country or change religion. Trust is one facet of culture, the levels of trust differ from countries to countries; it is quite high in China and they are particularly high in Norway, Finland, and Sweden. They are quite low in France and Italy and lower in Mexico and the West Indies (Statman, 2009). Guiso at al (2006) institute that levels of trust persevere among immigrants to the United States, and quite high levels of trust among immigrants are connected with quite high levels of trust in their countries of origin. Does cultural background affect financial attitudes? This is an essential question for financial advisors whose clients originate from different cultures. If we take Japan as example, decision-making is slower because they tend to seek authorisation of everyone in the group, particularly the elders. Japan is a high context culture, where less is expressed overtly and more is understood. For a person originating from a low context culture, sometimes it is challenging to understand what is the real definition. You need billions to penetrate the Japanese market; this is what makes it the last resort for investors. Despite Japanese has larger disposable income, they still find it hard to find investment opportunities (Ghimire, 2006). In Zimbabwe, where inflation rate is high, the government encourages the population to invest in securities rather than saving their income. Their investment culture has changed towards militating against the current hyper inflationary situation and the presence of resources in starting up and running their own business (The Herald, 2007). Uganda is populated by 30 million people and ha s around three million bank accounts, confirming that a major part of the population does not possess a formal saving structure. Mr Charles Ocici, Executive Director of the Enterprise Uganda, stated: its not always easy for an individual to save for future investment, hence if they are put in a group its easier to gather a fair amount of money for future investments where individual savings return less potential capital (Ladu, 2010). Johnson (2006) promulgates that Jamaicas investment culture is defined in terms of size, skill, bureaucracy and corruption. Coming to Chinese and American Investment Culture, Chinese households witnesses a high percentage of net worth in investments and they may experience fluctuations in wealth larger than they are able to cope, which could pave the way to stress or absurd financial behaviours. The difference between the two investment cultures lies in the collectivism of Chinese culture versus the self-centred nature of American culture. The Chines e are risk attracted because even though the asset is highly risky and offers a high probability of low return, there is still a guarantee of family or friends solidarity and support even in case of bankruptcy. The Americans on the other side of the coin are risk averse because they do not benefit from the same support. Family and friends are rarely present for help in case of high loss and bankruptcyÂÂ  and that is the cultural safety net. Financial advisers must know that people are different and even people who were born in any country have diverse preferences and those preferences may be found in family history, in personality or in culture. People carry on with their culture even for several years after they establish in a new country (Statman, 2009). New Zealand has witness a fall in household saving and a rise in household wealth, as they are tempted to invest in residential property due to rises in house prices. It should be noted that the household saving rate has b een among the lowest and investment in wealth is at much lower levels than the United States or Australia. Wealth is more unevenly distributed than income as well as financial skills. People who possess high financial knowledge have higher education, higher income and higher wealth and these people represent only 15 % of the population (Burns and Dwyer, 2007). Studies demonstrate the consumers inability to ascertain the quality of investments and they are faced with lots of information. Others will turn up with rules of thumb on how to progress. Consumer interviews suggest that advice from family members and friends are regarded as an important factor for investment decisions. A small proportion of people will have recourse to professional financial advisors. Lower taxes on managed funds, changes in the regulatory framework of the financial sector, educational measures to increase financial literacy are some factors that affect the investment culture in a particular country. A ne w trend has been observed; people tend to see education a reliable investment with much greater return. For instance, when Sweden denationalised its social security scheme, the Swedish population who had invested their own pensions chose more costly and less diversified funds (Burns and Dwyer, 2007, adapted from Stewart, 2005). The intricacy of the market and investment products, the costs of swapping products has set up demand-side restrictions that alleviate competition in the investment market (Burns and Dwyer, 2007, adapted from Grimes, 2005). Information about investment products has contributed to a low-trust environment, where light should be spread on investment products, fees, charges, and terminologies. Across the globe, investment decisions are taken, but there are some factors that an investor should consider like considering risks and making adequate comparison against the possible returns to be realised from the investment and the investment that provides the optima l value is chosen. We have also random an unsystematic investors. The investment climate depends on a large number of factors that can be gathered into three main categories: macroeconomic conditions, physical infrastructure and institutions. Foreign investors select an explicit location based on the investment type and the expected profitability. The foundation for making investments is determined by the definite features of the favoured location: disposal of cheap skilled labour, market size and volatility, existence of natural resources, nearness to the home country or admittance to good financial and physical infrastructure (UNECE, 2004). People also prefer safer investment like property, treasury bills, and investment in foreign currency and trading. The reluctance of people towards investment is just because they prefer to put in a bank to keep it safe. Moreover, with the uncertainty linked with how quick they can get their investment back on bonds make people reluctant to invest. Another factor that shape investment decisions is the familiarity of the financial institution and the investment type. People are more attracted towards safer investment where they are absolutely familiar with and invest in an institution that they already know. It is also to be noted that some investors prefer their intuition to any systematic methods for their decisions. The source of information for investment decisions would include recommendation by friend, newspapers, leaflet or books, financial skills or a financial agent. The objective of investment would vary form keeping investment safe, making more money, employer actions or a friends advice (Boye, 2005). Studies have shown that men investment has been higher than womens for social and various demographic reasons. Women tend to be more risk averse than men in general. Individual investment choices on lifestyle and demographic attributes (Warren et al. (1990) and Rajarajan (2000), adapted from Dash, 2010). For making long-term investment, institutional investors need to analyse environmental, social and governance information. Racial differences on investment behaviour are investigated below. The way how black household invest in risky asset ownership would differ from white households. According to Wall Street Journal, the affluent Blacks are less involved in stock market than whites thus benefiting less from market gains. The reasons behind less interest on behalf of Black on the stock market arise from risk tolerance, investment choice, or a cultural difference. The investment behaviour can be viewed in different cases. In the case of individual investor, there is a large difference between Blacks and Whites in wealth accumulation over the life cycle, possibly leaving Black families less prepared for retirement. For financial consultants, lack of understanding between financial planners and Black clients may deter Blacks from ever seeking the advice of financial advisors (Gutter et al, 1999). Investors vary in risk tolerance and it is an important factor. Too little risk tolerance may leave investors with little superannuation income as they retreat from uncertain investments with high estimated returns. Too much risk tolerance might also leave investors with slight superannuation income as they spend their savings in gambles (Hoffman, 2007). In Mauritius, investment is viewed in a different angle, where the preferred investment vehicle is 95.9 % for bank savings and deposits for safety reasons while 7.14 % have invested in SIT and the stock market. 69 % of potential investors are ardent to invest on the stock market subject to disposal of funds and predictions of benefits being good. 10 % expressed hesitation to invest in risky sectors and the rest were reluctant and showed confidence in the banking system for safety reasons. The main reason why there is little investment by Mauritian is the lack of adequate information, no proper financial education. Other f actors would include income tax reasons, unprepared for downturns, the saving rate and the agreement, which is too bulky to read that discourages investment (FSC, 2002). 2.3 Conclusion Investment can be termed as deferred consumption. When an investor is confronted towards an investment decision, he will in a first instance analyse, what is his risk tolerance, what is the investment return and when will the investment yield to maturity. This is a general notion for everyone, but investors attitude vary from country to country or even continent to continent. Different investors have different preferences and needs. A deeper analysis shows that there are differences between male and female investors, uneducated and educated investors, young and older investors. It should be noted that knowledge of the relation between culture and financial attitudes helps financial advisors to improve services to their clients. Besides culture, the financial instrument used helps to define the investment culture and where people who are relatively savers see their savings as an investment. Friends have a major say, as they tend to influence the investor decision thus derouting from its own objective. A poor saving culture may not essentially explain a poor investment culture.